KEY POINTS: Chapter 19

Essential Question: What changes resulted in the New World as a result of the European conquest and colonization?

Identify: 	
Encomiendas – grants of Indian laborers to Spanish conquerors & settlers in central & S America
Mitas – labor extracted for lands assigned to state & religion; all communities contribute; essential aspect of Inca imperial control	
Castas – people of mixed origin in Spanish colonial society; secondary status in social system; potentially revolutionary group	
Mulatto – a person of mixed ancestry with an African and a European parent
Mestizos – people of mixed European-Indian ancestry in Mesoamerica and S America; often part of forced labor system 		
Peninsulares – people living in New World Spanish colonies but born in Spain	 
Creoles – whites born in New World; dominated local Latin America economies; ranked right under peninsulares 
What advantages did Spanish and Portuguese conquerors have?  Gunpowder, metal equipment, horses, diseases
Where is the Iberian Peninsula?  Europe, contains the countries Spain and Portugal

Spaniards and Portuguese: From Reconquest to Conquest  Note: btwn = between, estbl’d = established

What important events brought political and religious unification to Spain in 1492?  Marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon & Isabella of Castile, fall of Granada (last Muslim kingdom on Iberian Peninsula), voyages of Christopher Columbus 
What three Iberian traditions in society were recreated in Latin America?  Slaves, urban setting, close links btwn church & state
What were the three stages of conquest and colonization in the Americas?  
1492-1570 – set out main lines of administration and economy --- 1570-1700 – colonial institutions and societies take definite form 
18th century – reform and reorganization, intensified relationship between colony and motherland, growing dissatisfaction and revolt 
What initially was the relationship between Spaniards and Indians in the Caribbean?  Indians = slaves or “serfs” to Spaniards
Describe how Caribbean cities were fashioned by Spanish settlers.  Iberian-style cities adapted American realities, grid plan or checkerboard form w/ town hall, church, governor’s palace in central plaza, applied Roman models and rational town planning ideas
What Spanish institutions were estbl’d in new Caribbean colonies?  Governors, treasury, royal court of appeals w/ magistrates
What 2 groups’ arrival shows the shift from the Caribbean as area of conquest to settlement?  Spanish women, African slaves
After 30 yrs of Spanish colonization in the Caribbean, what had happened to the native population?  Died or been killed
Who was Father Bartolome de Las Casas?  Why was he significant?  
1484-1566, conquistador turned priest who initiated the struggle for justice against mistreatment and destruction of Indians
What type of economy was developing in Mexico, Peru, and Brazil in the early 16th century?  Sugar plantation economy
Describe how Cortes worked to conquer the Aztec empire.  Established a base at Veracruz on the coast, began to strike inland, fought w/ towns subject to the Aztecs, able to enlist the Indians’ support against their overlords, Indians led him to Tenochtitlan, captured & killed Moctezuma II, the Aztec emperor; driven away, Cortes come back, besiege the capital w/ the help of the Aztecs’ enemies in 1521.  Disease, starvation, and battle brought down the empire.
Describe how Pizzaro went about conquering the Inca Empire.  Came there b/c of rumors of a rich kingdom in S, led men to the Inca capital of Cuzco, brought the empire down in 1533 w/ the help of Indian allies, built the city of Lima nearby (closer to the coast). 
Describe what the men who chose to be conquerors were like and explain their motives.  They weren’t all professional soldiers; they represented all walks of Spanish life.  They were men on the make, hoping to better themselves and serve God by converting the subordinates at the same time.  They wanted treasure, grants of Indians as serfs/slaves, rewards, and honor.
What technological advantages did the Spanish have over the native populations?  Horses, firearms, steel weapons
What other advantages helped the Spanish in conquest?  Epidemic diseases, internal divisions and rivalries among Indian empires
Explain Sepulveda’s position as opposed to Las Casas’ in reference to the Spanish conquests.  Sepulveda said conquest was fully justified, freed the Indians from unjust lords and bring the light of salvation, Indians not fully human, some born to serve.  Las Casas said Indians were rational people who hadn’t done anything bad to Christians, conquest unjustified, Indians had many admirable accomplishments and customs, Spanish rule to spread faith justified but conversion should only take place only by peaceful means.
By what year had the conquest phase ended?  1570s

The Destruction and Transformation of Indian Societies

Describe the demographic changes that occurred in the Caribbean, Mexico, and Peru in the late 16th century.  Severe decline in Indian population – in Caribbean b/c slaving, mistreatment, disease; in Mexico b/c war, destruction, disease; in Peru similar causes
Describe the encomiedas system and explain how and why the Spanish government ended the practice.  Given to individual conquerors of a region and able to use Indians as workers & servants or to tax them; Spanish crown unwilling to see new nobility rise in New World and ended practice in 1540s by limiting inheritability of encomiendas and prohibited right to demand certain kinds of labor from the Indians.
Explain how a coercive labor system developed in the Latin American colonies.  Colonial gov’t kept on getting labor & taxes from natives: state projects, mining, and agriculture.  By 1600s, many Indians left villages to work for Spanish landowners or in cities.
Describe the Columbian Exchange.  Transference of animals, plants, and diseases, New World more affected than Old World

Colonial Economies and Governments

What was the basis of the economy in the New World?  Agriculture and mining
What economic activity in the New World was most important to Spain?  Mining
What was Potosi?  Describe Potosi.  Largest mine of all located in Upper Peru (Bolivia), 80% of all Peruvian silver.  More than 160,000 people lived and worked in the town and mine.  It became a wealthy mining center.
What types of items were imported from Europe to the New World?  Luxury items
Describe how the Spanish regulated the American trade.  Only Spaniards trade with America, tight restrictions, Board of Trade control Indies trade, worked together w/ merchant guild that control goods shipped to & from America and kept prices high.
Explain how the Treaty of Tordesillas affected Spanish and Portuguese land claims.  Portugal = east of line, Spain = west of line
Describe the bureaucratic system established in New Spain and Peru by the Spanish.  Built on judicial core and staffed by university-trained lawyers from Spain, judicial officers also exercised legislative and administrative authority
Explain how the Catholic Church helped to support state policy.  Carried out widespread conversion of Indians by establishing churches in towns and villages of sedentary Indians and setting up missions in frontier areas where nomads were forced to settle
Explain how the Catholic Church promoted cultural and intellectual life in the New World.  Construction of churches stimulate work of artists & architects, printing presses = more books, schools founded by clergy, universities in law & theology

Brazil: The First Plantation Colony

Contrast how Brazil was different from Spanish American colonies.  Not much attention paid to this colony, all the Portuguese did was grant licenses to merchants who agreed to exploit the dyewood trees in return for tax benefits and services.  Minor Portuguese nobles were given strips of land along the coast to colonize and develop.  
Who did the Portuguese use for labor on the sugar plantations?  African slaves
Describe the type of social and political system that developed in Brazil.  White planter families became aristocracy linked by marriage to resident merchants and some bureaucrats & officials and dominated local institutions.  Slaves were at the bottom, distinguished by color and status as property.  Middle class was composed of people of mixed origin: white, Indians, and African.  They were artisans, small farmers, herders, and free laborers living w/ whites, freed blacks, and free Indians.
By the 1680’s what European powers began to compete with Brazil in sugar production?  Dutch, English, French
In the late 17th century, what discovery in Brazil led to more settlement of the interior?  Gold 
What was Mina Gerais?  Explain how Mina Gerais affected Brazil.  It was the gold mine or General Mines.  The Brazilian colony experienced a big boom.  People left their towns to go on the gold rush.  Nearly 5000 immigrants came each year in search of gold.
Gold production reached its height 1735-1760 and avg about 3 tons a yr in that period.
Explain how Portugal became dependent on England economically.  With pressure from Portuguese wine producers, a treaty was signed w/ England in 1703 that guaranteed a trading arrangement w/ that country.  So, most of the Brazilian gold was given to England for manufactured goods and to pay off for a trade imbalance b/c value of English manufactures greater than Portuguese wine.

Multiracial Societies

Describe the sociedad de casta that developed in Latin America.  Whites at top, mixed people in the middle, black slaves or Indians at bottom.  Mixed (casta): shopkeepers, small farmers.  As mixed population grew, more restrictions on them, but social mobility not halted.  Ethnic labels as occupations, wealth, or marital status changed.  Part of the casta = former slaves or Indians who could speak Spanish and left their communities to live in the Hispanic world.  Peninsulares = born in Spain, Creoles = born in New World.  
What role/rights did women in Latin America have?  Subordinates, no place in gov’t, assume duties of motherhood and household, under authority of husbands, but widows direct family’s activities; lower-class women control small-scale commerce in towns and villages, work in the fields, labor at loom; marriages arranged, paid by dowry, women had full rights to inheritance, upper-class women who didn’t marry at young age in convents

The 18th Century Reforms

Describe what problems were weakening Spain’s hold on its overseas empire.  
Weak kings, not enough leadership, foreign wars, increasing debt, declining population, and internal revolts.
List what reforms the new Bourbon monarchs made.  More effective, powerful gov’t able to direct economy better, expel Jesuits, reform navy, new ships, tighter tax system, French bureaucratic models, no convoy fleet system, more ports, new viceroyalties, eliminate Creoles from bureaucracy, no more local magistrates, provincial govs. on French models instead, intendancy system
Why were the Jesuits expelled from both the Spanish and Portuguese empires?  Church shared power with the state
Which social group lost political power because of the Bourbon reforms?  Creoles
Who was put in charge of the new militia units?  Creoles
List what reforms were made by Pombal in Brazil.  Did these reforms led to any real change?  Explain.  Form monopoly companies, new crops, Rio de Janeiro new capital, abolish slavery, whites and Indians intermarry, colonize interior; not fully effective b/c trade suffered since demand for products low  
What factors led to an overall population increase in the Americas by the end of the 18th century?  Declining mortality rates, increasing fertility rates, increasing immigration from Europe, thriving slave trade
Why were all of the late 18th century revolts in Latin America generally unsuccessful?  Tensions btwn racial & social groups and concessions by government
In what ways was Latin America like Western Europe and in what ways was Latin America different?  
Similarities: traditions, laws, slavery, white elite, social hierarchy
Differences: environments, economic possibilities, diverse Indian peoples, Indian cultures vibrant, social and economic realities